Main objectives and policy instruments of poverty reduction

Main objectives and policy instruments of poverty reduction While much of the western world benefits from decades of economic growth, it is hard to conceive that a large proportion of the population still struggles for survival as a result of extreme poverty and deprivation. To date, approximately 1 billion people still have an income of less than $1 per day (OECD, 2007). The question of what policies and strategies are most effective in achieving sustained poverty reduction is among one the most important and complex challenges that face policy makers involved in economic development. In light of this question, this paper will review the objectives and policy instruments associated with poverty reduction. Firstly, the paper will very briefly give an outline of the objectives of poverty reduction through considering the Millennium Development Goals. Secondly and of greater focus, the paper will consider the importance of economic growth as a policy instrument associated with poverty reduction. Policy Objectives Before it is possible to implement strategies and policy focussed at reducing poverty, it is firstly essential to set specific and measureable objectives targeting the areas in which poverty exists. Poverty by definition is complicated and must give consideration to a number of dimensions. The OECD (2001) defines poverty as the inability of people to meet economic, social, and other standards of well being. Poverty, therefore, can encapsulate deprivation in areas such as health, income, gender, education and politics. Objectives of poverty reduction must extend to include all dimensions in which individuals are deprived or debilitated. The most widely recognised objectives regarding poverty reduction are provided through the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). On September 2000 the MDGs were adopted by 189 countries as a guideline for the objectives of poverty reduction to be achieved by 2015 (DFID, 2001). The MDGs outline 8 objectives central to the eradication of poverty (UNDP, 2010). These objectives are broken down into 21 different targets that are measured by 60 indicators (A full outline of the criteria to meet these objectives can be seen in Table 1): Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty Achieve Universal Primary Education Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women Reduce Child Mortality Improve Maternal Health Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases Ensure Environmental Sustainability Develop a Global Partnership for Development The MDGs highlight that objectives of poverty reduction are not solely confined to improvements in income but also incorporate objectives of human development, sustainability, and equality. Broadly speaking, these objectives help to provide a global criterion for measuring progress in poverty reduction and provide a scale of measurement adaptable in all countries. It is important to note, however, that although the MDGs provide a framework for developing countries to use, poverty reduction strategies must be country specific taking into consideration the causes of poverty as well as the precedence of what objectives need be tackled (OECD, 2001). With these objectives of poverty reduction in mind, this raises the question of what instruments are best suited in achieving these objectives. As a comprehensive overview of all the main policy instruments associated with poverty reduction is well beyond the scope of this paper, the following section will concentrate on the importance of economic growth as a policy instrument associated with poverty reduction. Policy Instruments Economic Growth Historically, the main instrument associated with poverty reduction has been economic growth. Economic growth is associated with poverty reduction on a number of levels. Firstly, increases in GDP per capita are associated with improvements in human development. For example, increases in the average income of a country are associated with improvements in life expectancy, infant mortality, and primary school enrolment all key elements of the MDGs (Moser and Ichida, 2001). Secondly, economic growth helps to creates jobs which are essential to improving employment opportunities and raising incomes in the long-term (DFID, 2001). However, although economic growth is associated with improvements in income and human development, there still remains debate over the extent to which growth benefits the poorest individuals in society. In an attempt to understand the effect of economic growth on poverty, Dollar and Kraay (2002) examined the relationship between changes in the average GDP per capita income against the income of the lowest quintile of the population in 80 countries. Dollar and Kraay found than on average the income of the poorest quintile increased proportionately with increases in average GDP per capita. Dollar and Kraay concluded that the effects of economic growth benefit the poor as much as others in society. They suggested therefore that standard growth enhancing policies should be at the heart of poverty reduction strategies. The results from Dollar and Kraay emphasise the importance for countries to adopt frameworks that are conducive to growth as a means of poverty reduction. This is a view shared by Kruegar (2004) who highlights that economic growth is the principal route to lasting poverty reduction. Indeed, economic policies such as openness to trade, liberalisation and sound fiscal policy which are seen as conducive to economic growth are also associated with favourable poverty reduction (World Bank, 2000). Moreover, generally poverty reduction has been most substantial in those countries which have benefited from the most impressive rates of growth (AusAid, 2007). However, the results produced by Dollar and Kraay (2002) do not come without scrutiny. The findings illustrate that economic growth benefited the lowest quintile proportionately on average yet there are cases where economic growth does not always benefit the poorest individuals in society Botswana is perhaps an extreme example and likew ise at the other end of the scale, some countries have demonstrated that the poor have benefited substantially more than other groups during times of economic growth (World Bank, 1993). This raises a further question of why growth influences poverty reduction in some countries more than others. Pro-Poor Growth More recently, a greater focus is being placed on levels of inequality within a country as a determinant on the effect of economic growth on poverty reduction. The OECD (2001) suggests that only half the increases of those in poverty are a result of GDP growth whereas the other half comes from strategies that target the composition, distribution and sustainability of growth. Ravallion (1997) measured the effect of growth on poverty elasticity in countries with initial levels of low and high-income inequality. Ravallion found that economic growth reduced poverty in low income inequality countries almost twice as much as those in high income inequality countries. In other words, countries with high levels of inequality would need growth rates twice that of low inequality countries to match similar levels of poverty reduction. The findings by Ravallion highlight that policies targeting poverty reduction therefore must also consider the distributional aspect of growth. This places a grea ter emphasis on pro-poor growth. That is, growth that is combined with objectives of rapid and sustained poverty reduction (OECD, 2007). Pro-poor growth strategies must attempt to target the areas in which poverty and inequalities exist, and as mentioned this can occur in a number of dimensions. Typically, those in poverty have a lack of access to basic provisions and services, such as education and healthcare, and therefore inequalities are perpetuated due to a lack of opportunity. Pro-poor Policies must attempt to maximise the opportunities of the poor through utilising their skills and capabilities (DFID, 2003). This can be done through a number of channels, and the role of both the private and public sector are important. For example, in the private sector providing the poor with access to markets and credit is seen as essential for involving the poor in the economy and creating jobs (ODI, 2008). Recently microfinance schemes have been extremely beneficial in providing access to credit and vocational training for the poor. However, participation in markets is only conducive to pro-poor growth if there is appropria te regulation and policies which can protect the poor in the event of market failures (OECD, 2007). Pro-poor policies must attempt to promote macroeconomic stability within a country to ensure that the poor are not affected by market-shocks and rising inflation (DFID, 2003). Additionally, the distribution of government spending is seen as a key instrument in the promotion of pro-poor growth. In developing countries, government spending has been found to be largely inefficient in that it tends to be focussed disproportionately towards higher income groups at the expense of the poor (Wilhelm and Fiestas, 2005). Pro-poor government spending can increase the participation of the poorest individuals through efficient and fair fiscal policy increasing access to these basic services which in turn can reduce inequalities and promote economic growth. Indeed, countries which have a fairer distribution of government spending are more likely to have lower levels of inequality (Lopez, Thomas, and Wang, 2008). It is important to note that finding the appropriate balance between both policies that are good for poverty reduction and policies that are good for growth is extremely complicated and may required trade-offs. Pro-poor strategies such as redistribution through increased taxes may act to finance increased government expenditure in poor areas, however this may damage growth through reduced savings and investment which could consequently reduce the impact of poverty reduction in the long run (DFID, 2001). For instance, in the mid-part of Malaysias industrialisation, policies focussed on equity were seen as excessive and blamed for constricting economic growth (Hassan, 2004). Broad-Based Growth An essential factor of pro-poor growth is that it should be broad-based and target the areas where poverty is widespread. Three quarters of poverty exists in rural areas, yet policies targeting growth are predominantly focussed on the urban sector (Anriquez and Stamoulis, 2007). Indeed, widespread inequality is most substantial between rural and urban areas (Lopez, Thomas, and Wang, 2008). Recently, in the 2008 World Development Report titled Agriculture for Development, the World Bank (2008) highlighted that investment in agriculture is increasingly becoming an important engine for poverty reduction. Investment in rural infrastructure and small-scale enterprises and services has been found to be highly effective in increasing productivity and creating employment. For example, reductions in poverty have been most substantial in countries which experienced the most significant improvements in rural productivity. From 1971 to 1999 agricultural productivity per capita in East Asia, wher e poverty reduction was most rapid, increased by 45% compared to sub-Saharan Africa with an increase in productivity of only 4% (DFID, 2003). Moreover, growth in agriculture is more conducive to poverty reduction than any other sector (DFID, 2003). Indeed, the World Bank (2008) highlights the improvements in the MDGs of raising the income of all individuals above $1 has been primarily due to falling rural sector poverty whereas urban poverty has remained constant and had little effect. However, again, increases in agricultural productivity and growth are strongly influenced by levels of inequalities within the rural sector in particular levels of land inequality. Pro-poor policies which target poverty reduction through agricultural growth must also give consideration to the potential impact of redistribution strategies. Land reform policies have been cited as a particular strategy as a means of facilitating growth, reducing inequalities and ultimately poverty reduction (Hanmer, Healey and Naschold, 2000). Conclusion In conclusion, this paper has highlighted the importance of growth, and in particular pro-poor growth as an instrument associated with poverty reduction. Growth is inevitably a necessary condition of alleviating poverty through raising the incomes of individuals and through wider associations with improvements in human development. However, growth by itself is not always sufficient in achieving sustained poverty reduction and the effects of economic growth on the poor are inhibited by the level of inequality within a country. Of equal importance, therefore, is the structure of pro-poor growth. Governments must take an active role in poverty reduction strategies and reduce inequalities through increasing the opportunities of the poor to access basic provisions and services, and this in turn can facilitate both poverty reduction and economic growth. Moreover, it is important that pro-poor growth targets where poverty is abundant. An increasing emphasis is being placed on growth and dev elopment in the agricultural sector as a key driver of poverty reduction. Finally, it is important to mention that although this essay has emphasised the importance of growth, it has barely scratched the surface of the complexity of poverty reduction. Poverty is multidimensional and there are areas of poverty and human development which are barely affected by improvements in growth and therefore require policy instruments and strategies to target them directly e.g. gender inequality (Thomas, 2000). Furthermore, there is no one-size-fits-all answer to poverty reduction and each country must identify the causes of poverty and the independent strategies required to achieve sustained poverty reduction. Only then can the diverse objectives of the Millennium Development Goals be realistically achieved.

Relationship Conflict Resolution Model

About a month ago, my girlfriend (whom I will refer to as â€Å"Kelly†) and I were not getting along very well, and I attributed our difficulties to a mounting mess of unresolved disputes from our past. So I invited Kelly to sit down and talk about our problems. Kelly happily accepted. We agreed to take one resentment at a time, and talk each one through before moving the next. We ate dinner together, sat down on her couch and faced each other. I encouraged Kelly to have this talk between us, so I respectfully let her pick an issue hat is bothering her to talk about.It was difficult to hear about a problem that she has used against me many times already and I had hoped that she Just forgot about it†¦ But I sucked it up and listened anyway. The festering resentment that Kelly had been lugging around every day for over 3 years started when she had discovered explicit text messages on my phone between me and another woman. I tried to Justify my â€Å"dirty-talk† with this woman by blaming Kelly for rejecting me in the worst way imaginable. I had witnessed Kelly having sex tit another man Just after we had started dating.Kelly knew I was there, but she was so caught up in her own pleasure and enjoyment that my existence was no more significant than a fly on the wall. Kelly ignored everything I did and said as I attempted to get her stop what she was doing, and continued having sex with him until she became satisfied. I was completely devastated and overwhelmed with rejection. I could have left Kelly after what she had done. But I felt that if I can forgive her for this then I will hold all of controlling cards in our relationship.So I chose to stay with her, and see how things go†¦ I expected Kelly to suck up to me, kiss my ass, and make up for her actions in every way she possibly could†¦ But that never happened. Kelly ignored it and never even gave me the chance to express my feelings of betrayal and devastation to her about it. Conse quently, I let the resentment build up in me over time, mainly because I lacked assertiveness, so I buried my feelings to avoid conflict and reliving that dreadful event. So when Kelly initially confronted me about my text messages with this other woman,I responded to it by becoming defensive, trying to Justify my actions by blaming her for betraying me with another man. I tried to make her believe that my behavior was the result of her actions. I tried to make her believe that my interest in another woman was all her fault and that my dirty little secret was only talk and not sex, and against me. Ultimately, I felt entitled to do whatever I wanted because she had cheated with another man and she did it right in front of me. Since then, I have tried to figure out what it is that I had done prior to Kelly's actions hat may have influenced her choice to reject me that way.I started to realize allot of things about myself while progressing through psychological treatment, and through t his process I have practiced expressing empathy, sharpening my listening skills and I have been doing much better with each new skill that I have learned. But as I continued to use each new skill in my daily life, I could not avoid feeling somewhat coercive when I used empathy and assertiveness at times with Kelly. I had been purposely thinking out how to use the right tone if voice, overlapping ententes and using memorized feeling words Just to show empathy†¦ Inconsequently, my new communication style started to feel somewhat rehearsed, fake and coercive to me†¦ I knew I was saying the right things, but I started to feel that sometimes my words were liking real meaning and sincerity†¦ Speaking to people as if I were following directions from a book about how to communicate. But this particular sit-down talk with Kelly turned out to be more positively significant than any other talk that we have ever had. Everything that I have learned in therapy has been a benefit to my relationship with Kelly , and everyone else in my life for that matter..But reflecting back a few months, before having this conversation with her, I realized that I still hadn't been able to sort of tie it all together and use everything that I have learned so far without thinking too much about communication styles and details. I have been using listening skills, expressing empathy, taking accountability, and modifying my behavior more and more each week, and I have taken every opportunity to use each new skill as much as possible. But I have recently realized hat I was only getting better at using each skill independent from the others.Toward the end of our â€Å"conflict resolution talk†, I felt the greatest sense of relief in our relationship to see how happy Kelly was becoming as our conversation progressed. I had not realized how powerful of an impact that genuine empathy and listening to her every word would have on both of us. I believe that I actually felt the s ame pain that she had felt when she read those words on my phone. It was overwhelming!.. I felt a brick in my stomach made of betrayal and devastation s Kelly expressed the embarrassing details of my dirty text messages.She had said these same words to me before, describing her heartache over it, but I must have Just blocked her words out or I interrupted her in selfness and denial each time . The feelings inside of me made the event seem much more significant than I had realized. I could see it the way that she had experienced it but this time, the event upon me was very profound and I was taken over by guilt and shame. Truly understanding and experiencing Kelly's feelings caused emotions inside of me that kook control of my body language.I forgotten about my own resentments. I tried to hide my emotions, because I felt that have no right to cry over the pain that I had inflicted on her, but I couldn't stop the tears.. Kelly, moved to my side, laid her head on my shoulder and wrappe d her arms me. This was the first time that I had ever been successful in expressing pure empathy. This one particular dispute was resolved, but the scar will last forever. But Kelly and I now share this scar and we view our remaining unresolved disputes as teammates from the opposing dugout.

Rumors, Deception and Essay Topics for Catcher in the Rye

Rumors, Deception and Essay Topics for Catcher in the Rye Whether we're supposed to take this action among defiance or acceptance is, like the rest of the novel's ending, unclear. All the shortly mentioned characters are set into Holdens world for a reason, so they have to be portrayed. Inside this essay I will go over these themes and the way in which they have had an effect on the protagonist Holden Caulfield's life. Discuss Holden's loneliness and depression with regard to the way that it permeates the full chapter. The majority of the compact roles are vital however, like the characters mentioned previously. No director could secure the crucial performances from these types of actors. The budget shouldn't be a consideration as it would hinder the grade of the film and therefore not permit it to fulfill the wonderful the novel could have as a film. In reality, movie studios have been attempting to adapt the story of Holden Caulfield to the huge screen for decades. During the practice of growing up, several new emotions and experiences can change somebody's priorities. We can realize that the narrator has left his previous lifestyle of wandering and beer and is presently in a sophisticated and long-term relationship, until a particular point. The 5 principal parts of symbolism indicate the struggles which he faces and his emotional instability. It's debatable whether Holden's attitude has changed by the conclusion of the novel, on the 1 hand, he might have accepted that adolescence is simp ly a phase, but a lot of critiques of the novel imply he has not matured in any manner. How to Get Started with Essay Topics for Catcher in the Rye? This provides you with a clue what you are expected when picking a topic. As a way to do that and to develop a distinctive essay topic, they will need to develop writing skills and creativity. Many students understand how to format the text but have no clue how to find inspiration. Many college students would say that writing is almost never simple, especially when you must develop creative and intriguing topic ideas. It's the conclusion that provides you the opportunity to sum up and present a brief or executive overview of the topic. Go just for a topic you could comfortably analyze. Nevertheless, it is possible to still find a topic that you're passionate about and hence cover easily. Writing an essay on a specific novel can be challenging, especially if you don't understand how to choose a creative topic. New Questions About Essay Topics for Catcher in the Rye There are several different critics that view Holden in many various ways. These people seem to be socially intelligent and are usually accepted into society, unlike Holden. There's certainly much more that you're able to write about Holden. Holden calls Jane again, but there's no answer. The 30-Second Trick for Essay Topics for Catcher in the Rye Don't forget about questions that you want to answer in your paper, the quotes you want to use, and the proof you should provide to support your viewpoint. In the body you'll want t o have three or more primary ideas, so jot down the points which you will expand upon in your outline. Your thesis statement should tell the reader what to anticipate and ought to include your chief points. Before you begin, it's important to make the outline. It's then he wanders through nyc during wintertime. Whether you enjoy Catcher in the Rye isn't important. Holden's whole experience of a day or two in New York is based around the simple fact he thinks that everybody besides him is a phony, but ironically enough, he's a phony. These people all represent different facets of the City, and of urbanization during the start of the Atomic Age. Don't attempt to express tips that you think are expected from you. The bulk of the book occurs in New York, as before mentioned. Imagine that you're studying in Holden's school and you would like to persuade him that people around aren't phony. He admits that sometimes it's required to get involved in these types of actions and ultimately come to be a phony to be able to exist in the adult world, which explains why he is so strongly opposed to it. When there's ever another war, I will sit right the hell in addition to it. By creating a plan, you make certain that you won't be stuck in the center of your creative procedure or forget what you wished to write about. At the conclusion of the novel Holden seems to have more acceptance of the notion of growing up.

Student Loan Program Should Not Be Paid - 781 Words

The release of President Barack Obama s budget last month sparked growing concerns that student loan forgiveness - specifically for graduate school student debt - will cost taxpayers much more than originally estimated. As the Student Loan Ranger discussed previously, the president s budget shows a shortfall of approximately $21 billion for the federal student loan programs, in large part due to a projection of more borrowers taking advantage of loan forgiveness after making 10 to 25 years of income-based payments. According to the New America Foundation, as much as 40 percent of the nation s recent federal loan disbursements are for graduate student debt. Graduate student borrowers are much more likely to have substantial loan amounts forgiven under the income-based repayment, Pay As You Earn and Public Service Loan Forgiveness programs. That s because dependent undergraduate borrowers cannot borrow more than $31,000 in federal student loans - independent students can borrow up to $57,500 - making it unlikely there would be any remaining balance after 10 or 20 years of payment unless the borrower made an unusually low income for a long time. Graduate borrowers, on the other hand, can borrow up to the cost of attendance through the Grad PLUS program, up to $138,500 for their entire undergraduate and graduate study period. In fact, according to the New America report, the median debt load for a graduate student upon completion of study in 2012 was $57,600. One in 4Show MoreRelatedIs College Education A Tax Policy Program? Essay1635 Words   |  7 Pagesearly start. THIS should be the reality, the outcome after graduating. Unfortunately, unless people come from a rich family or gained a rare full ride to college, the realities of the aftermath are not that bright. Because almost all students can’t afford to attend college, the consumption of student loans comes back to haunt them in the end. Since the government is not doing anything to fix this problem to help relieve people of student loan debt, every employment companies should establish a taxRead MoreThe Role Of Federal Loans Became Dependent On American Families1455 Words   |  6 Pagesattending a university is very costly. The use of federal loans became dependent on most American families that try to provide such an education to their c hild. Before World War II, academically advanced students from families that were unable to finance college could apply for competitive scholarships; Scholarships mutated into â€Å"financial aid† when the GI Bill of Rights financed college for the discharged veterans (Toby, 2010). Since then, student loan debt has surpassed $1 trillion, which is larger thanRead MoreStudent Loan Debt Is Not Worth Going Into1335 Words   |  6 Pagesdecade student loan debt has risen substantially and is now one of the largest form of personal debt in America, totaling about one trillion dollars, with 71 percent of students who earn a bachelors degree graduating with debt, with the average amount of debt being $29,400. This topic has become a very important issue, with some people saying that student loans could be the next bubble and could do what the real estate bubble did to the U.S economy in 2007 and 2009. If student loans are becomingRead MoreThe Student Loan Debt Total1736 Words   |  7 PagesThe student loan debt total was about nine hundred and two million dollars to one trillion dollars in the United States in 2012; the federal student loan debt made up about eight hundred and sixty-four billion dollars of the total debt (Driscoll and Clapp). Many people in the United States that cannot afford college tuition and additional fees take student loans and/or federal grants. Student loans are different from federal grants in that the loans have to be paid back with interest, while federalRead MorePublic Service Loan Forgiveness ( Pslf ) Essay1553 Words   |  7 PagesAs of today Americans are facing a outstanding debt of 1.3 trillion dollars in student loans alone and it s up to 43 billio n students to pay all of that back in full. Our most recent graduating Class of 2016 student is coming out of college owing an average of $37, 172 in loans, making an increase of 6% since 2015. Which is significant amount of growth to have within such a short period of time. Many of these students are unable to make their monthly payments whether it be because of the tremendouslyRead MoreFinancial Risk Of For College Aid From The Department Of Education1294 Words   |  6 PagesStudent loans are unique. This same analysis would not apply to, say, home loans. With houses, private lenders play a critical role in determining who is a credit-worthy borrower, and what the appropriate loan amount is for the asset that is being purchased with the loan proceeds. The financial risk of being wrong causes lenders to take seriously the job of allocating loan capital efficiently. But in the federal student loan program, there is a single process for determining eligibility for collegeRead MoreFinding The Lowest Student Loans Consolidation Program1536 Words   |  7 PagesFinding the lowest student loans consolidation program is very important as this will decide your financial future. You should take this process very seriously and find out ways to search for the loan consolidation program that imposes lowest charges and interest rates. This will not only save you a lot of money but also help you lead a better life where you can pay attention to other necessities and luxuries of your life too. When a person is deep down in debt he does not think anything else unlessRead MoreNational Student Loan Data System1491 Words   |  6 Pagescalled Program Integrity: Gainful Employment (GE) was established when concerns were raised about the amount owed on student loan debt. This single ruling will permanently close several hundred programs and lower the options of educational choices for non-traditional students. The American taxpayer dollar is funding the education of low income students in the form of Federal Pell Grants and Federal Direct Student Loans. The federal government has the responsibility of funding those student loans. TheRead MoreEssay about Information about Financial Aid1063 Words   |  5 PagesFinancial aid is money in the form of loans, grants and employment that is available to a student to help pay the cost of attending. Financial aid comes from the federal government, which is the largest provider of aid, as well as state government, the school and a variety of other public and private sources. If you think your educational expenses are more than you and your family can afford, you should apply for financial aid using the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). You will need toRead MoreDebt Is A Duty Or Obligation Pay Money Or Render Service Under An Express Or Implied Agreement?1248 Words   |  5 Pages2013 had a student loan debt with an average of $28,400 per borrower† (________________________). Debt is a duty or obligation to pay money or render service under an express or implied agreement. So when one takes out a student loan one has made an agreement with the lender to borrow money for a certain amount of time. Every semester the cost continues to rise for college students across the country. Instead of considering only tuition when applying for school, prospective students should research